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a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Sartwell, Crispin (2017). "Beauty". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on February 26, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2021. a b Chio, Cecilia Di; Brabazon, Anthony; Ebner, Marc; Farooq, Muddassar; Fink, Andreas; Grahl, Jörn; Greenfield, Gary; Machado, Penousal; O'Neill, Michael (2010). Applications of Evolutionary Computation: EvoApplications 2010: EvoCOMNET, EvoENVIRONMENT, EvoFIN, EvoMUSART, and EvoTRANSLOG, Istanbul, Turkey, April 7–9, 2010, Proceedings. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. p.302. ISBN 978-3642122415. Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous, [65] as reflected in the statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem " Ode on a Grecian Urn" by John Keats, or by the Hindu motto "Satyam Shivam Sundaram" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes equated with truth. [66] Recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks. [67] However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell [68] and physicist Marcelo Gleiser [69] have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray. Green, Edward (2005). "Donald Francis Tovey, Aesthetic Realism and the Need for a Philosophic Musicology". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music. 36 (2): 227–248. JSTOR 30032170. Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that makes these objects pleasurable to perceive. Such objects include landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, one of the major branches of philosophy. As a positive aesthetic value, it is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart.

a b Sartwell, C. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Beauty. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition). Archived from the original on January 18, 2021 . Retrieved May 11, 2015. Hassenzahl, M. (2008), Aesthetics in interactive products: Correlates and consequences of beauty. In H.N.J. Schifferstein & P. Hekkert (Eds.): Product Experience. (pp.287–302). Elsevier, Amsterdam Halliwell, Stephen (2002). "Inside and Outside the Work of Art". The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems. Princeton University Press. pp.152–59. ISBN 978-0-691-09258-4. Schmidhuber, J. (1991). Curious model-building control systems. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks. Vol.2. Singapore: IEEE press. pp.1458–1463. doi: 10.1109/IJCNN.1991.170605.

Honderich, Ted (2005). "Aesthetic judgment". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021 . Retrieved 26 May 2021. Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty. [85] [86] However, humans who are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history. [ citation needed] Reber, Rolf; Schwarz, Norbert; Winkielman, Piotr (November 2004). "Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver's Processing Experience?". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 8 (4): 364–382. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3. hdl: 1956/594. PMID 15582859. S2CID 1868463. Doran, Robert (2017). The Theory of the Sublime from Longinus to Kant. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ISBN 1107499151.

Danto, Arthur C. (2004). "Kalliphobia in Contemporary Art". Art Journal. 63 (2): 24–35. doi: 10.2307/4134518. JSTOR 4134518.a b c d e f g h i j De Clercq, Rafael (2013). "Beauty". The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics. Routledge. Archived from the original on January 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2021. The philosophical study of the aesthetic object. This approach reflects the view that the problems of aesthetics exist primarily because the world contains a special class of objects toward which we react selectively and which we describe in aesthetic terms. The usual class singled out as prime aesthetic objects is that comprising works of art. All other aesthetic objects (landscapes, faces, objets trouvés, and the like) tend to be included in this class only because, and to the extent that, they can be seen as art (or so it is claimed).

The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English-language words "beauty" or "beautiful" was κάλλος, kallos, and the adjective was καλός, kalos. However, kalos may and is also translated as "good" or "of fine quality" and thus has a broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty. Similarly, kallos was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears an erotic connotation. [23] The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios, [24] an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour". [25] Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age". [25] Another classical term in use to describe beauty was pulchrum ( Latin). [26] Gleiser, Marcelo (2010). A Tear at the Edge of Creation: A Radical New Vision for Life in an Imperfect Universe. Free Press. ISBN 978-1439108321. Judgments of beauty seem to occupy an intermediary position between objective judgments, e.g. concerning the mass and shape of a grapefruit, and subjective likes, e.g. concerning whether the grapefruit tastes good. [13] [10] [9] Judgments of beauty differ from the former because they are based on subjective feelings rather than objective perception. But they also differ from the latter because they lay claim on universal correctness. [10] This tension is also reflected in common language. On the one hand, we talk about beauty as an objective feature of the world that is ascribed, for example, to landscapes, paintings or humans. [14] The subjective side, on the other hand, is expressed in sayings like "beauty is in the eye of the beholder". [3] The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in postmodernism's anti-aesthetics. [60] This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty. [61]Moshagen, M.; Thielsch, M.T. (2010). "Facets of visual aesthetics". International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 68 (10): 689–709. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhcs.2010.05.006. S2CID 205266500. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020 . Retrieved 2 June 2020. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1964), The Visible and the Invisible. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0810104571 The word aesthetic is derived from the Ancient Greek αἰσθητικός ( aisthētikós, "perceptive, sensitive, pertaining to sensory perception"), which in turn comes from αἰσθάνομαι ( aisthánomai, "I perceive, sense, learn") and is related to αἴσθησις ( aísthēsis, "perception, sensation"). [6] Aesthetics in this central sense has been said to start with the series of articles on "The Pleasures of the Imagination", which the journalist Joseph Addison wrote in the early issues of the magazine The Spectator in 1712. [7]

The relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate. Hal Foster (1998). The Anti-aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-462-9.

For Immanuel Kant ( Critique of Judgment, 1790), "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once. Kant (1790) observed of a man "If he says that canary wine is agreeable he is quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to me," because "Everyone has his own ( sense of) taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere "agreeableness" because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; he then judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things." Tatarkiewicz, Władysław (1980). A History of Six Ideas: an essay in aesthetics. PWN/Polish Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-8301008246. The classical concept of beauty is one that exhibits perfect proportion (Wolfflin). [37] In this context, the concept belonged often within the discipline of mathematics. [26] An idea of spiritual beauty emerged during the classical period, [27] beauty was something embodying divine goodness, while the demonstration of behaviour which might be classified as beautiful, from an inner state of morality which is aligned to the good. [38]